Plastic, Paper and Perdition

 How Recycling becomes the Tip of Climate-Change Scales

Germany is often being reprimanded for its underperformance in recycling, despite its reputation as a pioneer and avantgarde[1]. Expectedly, outside of Germany, it doesn't look better, to a degree that pointing towards Germany's allegedly innovative separation of different wastes doesn't hold up to one's own underperformance: A recently published study[2] has shown that in the US, paper and cardboard worth millions of dollars are wasted due to improper recycling procedures. Now it was not the point to emphasise the waste of paper as all wastes that can be reprocessed are ought to. This accounts for wastes like plastic, which is known to infest the oceans and, in microscopically small shape, enters our bodies, from which it can even be “inherited”[3]. (Not to speak of the fact that very little plastic is actually being recycled, despite having just the right traits to be nearly infinitely being recycled[4]) But paper is a particularly crucial issue because of the raw material it is produced of, namely wood. Trees play an important role in our combat against climate change because of their essential ability to convert CO2 into oxygen. Many times when people became aware of Brazilian farmers' deforestation in the Amazon forest to create more arable land, the rainforest was described as the 'lung of the earth', a false equivalence[5] not only because algae in the oceans encapsulate disproportionately more CO2 than the rainforest[6]. (Algae can also contain hazardous materials like Bisphenol A[7]) But trees still play a major role, indisputably, which is also the reason why awareness has risen for the need to plant more trees altogether, globally, while reducing their felling for whichever purposes. We have already seen the consequences of losing entire forests while degrading their amount simultaneously because of vermin such as the bark beetle.[8][9]

What does this mean? On the one hand, obviously, recycling must become more prominent and more genuinely be pursued. Not only in major players in the Western world, e.g., the US and Germany, but in all countries alike. Waste management is not only a problem of theirs but of every country inhabited by humans that have not yet managed to turn their backs entirely on non-organic products, of which paper obviously is a part because it doesn't rot away that fast. (To prove that, I only need to look into my shelves to see all the books with a hundred years of age and paper that can still be turned without auxiliaries because they won't morph into dust once they're touched) Secondly, another most obvious action: Less must be produced. Some climate activists have hopped the derailing bandwagon of 'degrowth economics' (which has experienced its rebuke by economics on Twitter[10]) and 'Modern Monetary Theory' (MMT), which has itself been laid to rest by other economists[11]. It may be an Herculean task to say that all it took us to understand why we need not many more plastics and the likes when we just cleaned up the oceans--one could use the words of prime minister-elect of Poland, Donald Tusk, who recently spoke about „czyścić stajnię Augiasza” with reference to the public television stations and news agencies[12]--, but it's true nonetheless and could mean to kill two birds with one stone: All the wastes could no longer harm maritime animals[13], and we as humans have got more mateirals to work with without the costs of production. (The costs now lie with the collection, duh)  

Then again, because it has again been the elephant in the room, there is also the issue with climate change as a whole: If it weren't, plastic pollution and waste would not be a problem either.[14] This too can be targeted, and again, trees play a role, because no-one wishes for more wetlands like swamps, ponds and seas inside cities. Greenspaces are more favourable for inhabitants of the cities too[15]. And so, trees it shall be. For the very beginners, it should be emphasised that unlike common knowledge, trees don't like asphalt. Therefore, they should be given soil through their roots can penetrate so that the trees have a solid footing[16]. Besides trees, other kinds of plants are helpful too, especially for bees, some of the most mistreated insect species in Western society[17][18]. Needless to say that humans also benefit from them in urban areas as they relieve the jammed heat inside cities, where concrete and asphalt absorb heat to cook commuters alive [19].

As a last point, consumers need to be addressed in their personal responsibility: It is the people as a whole who produce the waste by purchasing products packed in plastic and paper (dominantly the former) and later either dispose of the packaging in orderly fashion, or inorderly, by dropping it somewhere on the floor. One way local governments can react to that is by positioning more waste bins along pavements[20], but even that cannot strip the people of their responsibility to do better. Which raises the question: Are there any 'nudging' techniques to move the people subconsciously into the right direction[21]? Hardly any beyond raising awareness to, for example, the deeply unsustainable production of 'fast fashion'[22], sold through brands like PRIMARK and via mainland Chinese platforms like Temu. (But also the brand SHEIN) Peole cannot be prohibited from purchasing goods via dubious platforms like Temu, Wish or at equally suspicious sellers like the aforementioned. Shutting such platforms down lacks existing precedence, so that it may not hold up in courts like the ECJ[23][24]. Unless climate change were firstly understood as a global threat to humankind[25], and fast-fashion outlets (amongst others) were declared complices thereof, either intentional or inadvertent, any such legislation were thrown out instantly. Regarding the healthy competition between fashion producers, no such legislation were technically needed as they were not the only ones selling affordable clothing, next to second-hand shops and salvation armies (not only the capital-S salvation army) who offered clothing to needy people. Other examples would be offerings between globally traded vs. locally harvested and packed food (concerning the price tag) and spending one's holiday in one's own country vs. travelling across the globe by aeroplane. Of course there are negative examples like commuting to work by car vs. by public transport, so that there is no carpet thesis to be presented, but one that can cover up a good part of the examples of everyday life: Decline is a choice. (As Charles Krauthammer coined it) We are given a choice in which only the fools would pick the unsustainable option. For everything else, legislators could nudge people into the right direction, non-invasively[21].

I wish you all a happy new year!

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Footnotes

[1] Although it'd be wrong to stylise it as if we weren't recycling waste materials at all; 71 is still more than two third of all waste materials: https://www.euwid-recycling.de/news/politik/eu-staaten-haben-2021-knapp-die-haelfte-ihres-siedlungsabfalls-recycelt-130123/

[2] Milbrandt, A., Zuboy, J., Coney, K., & Badgett, A. (2023). Paper and cardboard waste in the United States: geographic, market, and energy assessment. Waste Management Bulletin. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wmb.2023.12.002

[3] Weingrill, R. B., Lee, M. J., Benny, P., Riel, J., Saiki, K., Garcia, J., ... & Urschitz, J. (2023). Temporal trends in microplastic accumulation in placentas from pregnancies in Hawaiʻi. Environment international, 180, 108220. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2023.108220

 Kopatz, V., Wen, K., Kovács, T., Keimowitz, A. S., Pichler, V., Widder, J., Vethaak, A. D., et al. (2023). Micro- and Nanoplastics Breach the Blood–Brain Barrier (BBB): Biomolecular Corona’s Role Revealed. Nanomaterials, 13(8), 1404. MDPI AG. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano13081404

UN News (August 21, 2019). Microplastic pollution is everywhere, but not necessarily a risk to human health. Link: https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/08/1044661

[4] Main, Douglas (October 12, 2023). Think that your plastic is being recycled? Think again. MIT Technology Review: https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/10/12/1081129/plastic-recycling-climate-change-microplastics/

[5] Zimmer, Katarina (August 28, 2019). Why the Amazon doesn’t really produce 20% of the world’s oxygen. National Geographic: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/why-amazon-doesnt-produce-20-percent-worlds-oxygen

[6] Buck-Wiese, H., Andskog, M. A., Nguyen, N. P., Bligh, M., Asmala, E., Vidal-Melgosa, S., ... & Hehemann, J. H. (2023). Fucoid brown algae inject fucoidan carbon into the ocean. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 120(1), e2210561119. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2210561119

[7]  Atengueño-Reyes, K., Velasquez-Orta, S. B., Yáñez-Noguez, I., Monje-Ramirez, I., Chávez-Mejía, A., & Ledesma, M. O. (2023). Microalgal consortium tolerance to bisphenol A and triclosan in wastewater and their effects on growth, biomolecule content and nutrient removal. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 262, 115117. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115117

[8] Norozi, A., Attarod, P., Pypker, T. G., Sadeghi, S. M. M., & Etemad, V. (2024). Estimation of bark water storage capacity of broad-and needle-leaved trees planted in a semi-arid climate zone. Journal of Arid Environments, 220, 105100. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2023.105100

Holopainen, J. K., Virjamo, V., Ghimire, R. P., Blande, J. D., Julkunen-Tiitto, R., & Kivimäenpää, M. (2018). Climate change effects on secondary compounds of forest trees in the northern hemisphere. Frontiers in plant science, 9, 1445. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.01445

Aba, S. C., Ndukwe, O. O., Amu, C. J., & Baiyeri, K. P. (2017). The role of trees and plantation agriculture in mitigating global climate change. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, 17(4), 12691-12707. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.80.15500

 Mo, L., Zohner, C.M., Reich, P.B. et al. Integrated global assessment of the natural forest carbon potential. Nature (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06723-z

Fryd, O., Pauleit, S., & Bühler, O. (2012). The role of urban green space and trees in relation to climate change. CABI Reviews, (2011), 1-18. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1079/PAVSNNR20116053

In previously shamed Brazil, awareness rose with the succesion of Lula da Silva in the presidency. Reforestation efforts began and showed good signs of success:

 Veryard, R., Wu, J., O’Brien, M. J., Anthony, R., Both, S., Burslem, D. F., ... & Hector, A. (2023). Positive effects of tree diversity on tropical forest restoration in a field-scale experiment. Science Advances, 9(37), eadf0938. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adf0938

Climate change may present us with a cynical volta: Because of the growing global temperature, temperatures across the year may become too hot for trees to perform photosyntheses:

Doughty, C.E., Keany, J.M., Wiebe, B.C. et al. Tropical forests are approaching critical temperature thresholds. Nature (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06391-z

[9]  Robbins, Z. J., Xu, C., Jonko, A., Chitra-Tarak, R., Fettig, C. J., Costanza, J., ... & Scheller, R. M. (2023). Carbon stored in live ponderosa pines in the Sierra Nevada will not return to pre-drought (2012) levels during the 21st century due to bark beetle outbreaks. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 11, 281. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2023.1112756

But obviously, it's not only the bark beetle that endangers entire populations of trees inside forests; other insects already threaten young saplings before they manage to develop a hard rind to shield them off: 

Xu, C., Silliman, B. R., Chen, J., Li, X., Thomsen, M. S., Zhang, Q., Lee, J., Lefcheck, J. S., Daleo, P., Hughes, B. B., Jones, H. P., Wang, R., Wang, S., Smith, C. S., Xi, X., Altieri, A. H., van de Koppel, J., Palmer, T. M., Liu, L., … He, Q. (2023). Herbivory limits success of vegetation restoration globally. Science (New York, N.Y.), 382(6670), 589–594. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.add2814

[10] Linked hereunder are a thesis for the journal Nature as well as two threads on Twitter (aka X) speaking about the same thesis: https://t.me/PoliticsAndEconomicsOllyffer/29129

[11] Brooks, Robin; Fortun, Jonathan; Pingle, Jack (November 03, 2022). Global Macro Views - The End of the MMT Illusion. Institute for International Finance (IIF): https://www.iif.com/portals/0/Files/content/IIF110322_GMV.pdf (PDF, 358 KB)

[12] Onet Wiadomości (27. Grudnia 2023). Donald Tusk o wecie Andrzeja Dudy. "Zabawił się z obywatelami, bo przecież nie z nami". Link: https://wiadomosci.onet.pl/kraj/donald-tusk-o-mediach-publicznych-to-stajnia-augiasza/kw86ry2

[13] Walther, B. A., Bergmann, M., & Pasolini, F. Citizen scientists reveal small but concentrated amounts of fragmented microplastic on Arctic beaches. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 11, 1210019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2023.1210019

Bergmann, M., Collard, F., Fabres, J. et al. Plastic pollution in the Arctic. Nat Rev Earth Environ (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-022-00279-8

[14] Ford, H. V., Jones, N. H., Davies, A. J., Godley, B. J., Jambeck, J. R., Napper, I. E., ... & Koldewey, H. J. (2022). The fundamental links between climate change and marine plastic pollution. Science of the Total Environment, 806, 150392. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150392

[15] Lilah M. Besser et al. (2023). Neighborhood greenspace and neighborhood income associated with white matter grade worsening: Cardiovascular Health Study. In: Alzheimer's & Dementia: Diagnosis, Assessment & Disease Monitoring. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/dad2.12484

Minor, K., Glavind, K. L., Schwartz, A. J., Danforth, C. M., Lehmann, S., & Bjerre-Nielsen, A. (2023). Nature Exposure is Associated With Reduced Smartphone Use. Environment and Behavior, 55(3), 103–139. https://doi.org/10.1177/00139165231167165

But Captain Obvious just jumped in my door to tell me that the environment benefits from this too:

Mata, L., Hahs, A. K., Palma, E., Backstrom, A., Johnston, N., King, T., Olson, A. R., Renowden, C., Smith, T. R., Vogel, B., & Ward, S. (2023). Large positive ecological changes of small urban greening actions. Ecological Solutions and Evidence, 4(3). https://doi.org/10.1002/2688-8319.12259

[16] : Konarska, J., Tarvainen, L., Bäcklin, O., Räntfors, M., & Uddling, J. (2023). Surface paving more important than species in determining the physiology, growth and cooling effects of urban trees. Landscape and Urban Planning, 240, 104872. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2023.104872

[17] Selina A. Ruzi et al, Bee species richness through time in an urbanizing landscape of the southeastern United States, Global Change Biology (2023). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.17060

[18] Jerusel, Marc; Krzyzniewski, Stefanie (20. September 2023). Streetlife: Naturkundemuseum erforscht Artenvielfalt auf Berliner Straßenmittelstreifen. Museum für Naturkunde Berlin: https://www.museumfuernaturkunde.berlin/de/presse/pressemitteilungen/streetlife-naturkundemuseum-erforscht-artenvielfalt-auf-berliner

But diversity does not only refer to insects or other animal species. It can also address trees, although there, greater diversity may point towards malevolent factors such as foreign intruders that push away native ones:

Wohlgemuth, T., Gossner, M. M., Campagnaro, T., Marchante, H., van Loo, M., Vacchiano, G., ... & Silva, J. S. (2022).  Impact of non-native tree species in Europe on soil properties and biodiversity: a review. NeoBiota, 78, 45-69. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3897/neobiota.78.87022

For brevity's and focus' sake, we will generally ignore the question of diversity outside of cities, where agriculture is a major player driving against diversity because of monotonous environments. 

[19] Ebi, K. L., & Bowen, K. (2023). Green and blue spaces: crucial for healthy, sustainable urban futures. Lancet. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(23)00096-X

Fukano, Y., Yamori, W., Misu, H., Sato, M. P., Shirasawa, K., Tachiki, Y., & Uchida, K. (2023). From green to red: Urban heat stress drives leaf color evolution. Science Advances, 9(42). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abq3542

Scientists have also developed a special paint for buildings' facades that could absorb heat as well. It just hasn't reached a broader market introduction yet, so we cannot count it into our urban planning yet:

Felicelli, A., Katsamba, I., Barrios, F., Zhang, Y., Guo, Z., Peoples, J., ... & Ruan, X. (2022). Thin layer lightweight and ultrawhite hexagonal boron nitride nanoporous paints for daytime radiative cooling. Cell Reports Physical Science, 101058. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrp.2022.101058

[20] Others suggested a more cheapskate approach of simply moving existing waste bins to 'nudge' people into not littering:

Van Doesum, N. J., van der Wal, A. J., Boomsma, C., & Staats, H. (2021). Aesthetics and logistics in urban parks; can moving waste receptacles to park exits decrease littering?. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 77, 101669. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101669

The problem is that while it may work for parks, I notice littering alongside pavements more often, to the left and the right where green strips are located. There, no waste bin is in sight for entire kilometres; hence, none can be moved for the people. A higher density of the waste-bin network could thus help, although it is ridiculous to argue that a chocolate bar's packaging were too heavy to carry inside one's pocket or bag until a waste bin comes around. 

[21] Wee, S. C., Choong, W. W., & Low, S. T. (2021). Can “nudging” play a role to promote pro-environmental behaviour?. Environmental Challenges, 5, 100364. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2021.100364

[22] Niinimäki, K., Peters, G., Dahlbo, H. et al. The environmental price of fast fashion. Nat Rev Earth Environ 1, 189–200 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-0039-9

[23] For a different purpose, precedence for banning internet platforms in the first place, TikTok in the US could create precedence, but for that alone, we had to separate the NatSec question from the feasibility and permissibility.

Clausius, M. (2022). The Banning of TikTok, and the Ban of Foreign Software for National Security Purposes. Wash. U. Global Stud. L. Rev., 21, 273. Perm. Link: https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/wasglo21&div=19&id=&page=

[24] In the EU, a new 'EcoDesign' law was recently passed, demanding, inter alia, that unsold clothes must not be destroyed anymore. A good first step, one could argue:

https://commission.europa.eu/energy-climate-change-environment/standards-tools-and-labels/products-labelling-rules-and-requirements/sustainable-products/ecodesign-sustainable-products-regulation_en

[25] ... Which was recently enquired by numerous scientists in open letters, one of them being that one:

Kamran Abbasi, Parveen Ali, Virginia Barbour, Thomas Benfield, Kirsten Bibbins-Domingo, Stephen Hancocks, Richard Horton, Laurie Laybourn-Langton, Robert Mash, Peush Sahni, Wadeia Mohammad Sharief, Paul Yonga, Chris Zielinski, Time to treat the climate and nature crisis as one indivisible global health emergency, Nutrition Reviews, 2023;, nuad140, https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuad140